私醫聯招 英文歷屆試題｜全部題目＋答案＋詳解（第 12 頁）

Cross-species transplantation offers the prospect of an unlimited supply of organs and cells for clinical transplantation, thus resolving the critical shortage of human tissues that currently prohibits a majority of patients on the waiting list from receiving transplants.  (21)  scientifically as xenotransplantation, transplants of organs and tissues from animals to human actually have a long history. There are records of xenotransplantation attempts  (22)  the 17th century. Between the 17th and 20th centuries, blood was transfused from various animal species into patients with a variety of pathological conditions. Skin implants were carried out in the 19th century from  (23)  animals, with frogs being the most popular. In the 1920s, Voronoff advocated the transplantation of slices of chimpanzee testicles into aged men  (24)  “zest for life” were deteriorating, believing that the hormones produced by the testicles would rejuvenate his patients. Following the pioneering surgical work of Carrel,  (25) , numerous attempts at non-human primate organ transplantation in patients were carried out in the 20th century.

Faced with an  (26)  torrent of information, data scientists use visual aids to make sense of big data. This combination of numbers with art is often called “data visualizations.” Nevertheless, it can easily be  (27)  to twist public opinion to benefit specific communities or advocate groups. The problem is that we tend to trust images more than words, which is why we get  (28)  in the data deluge. For example, by presenting data with color cues, data scientists make specific data more  (29)  than the rest, but when looking at the raw materials, we may find the colored part does not stand out from the rest. Also, using structural cues can be misleading in the way that with different  (30)  on the x or y-axes, it can create other effects, though the original data are the same.

Behavioral psychology and neuroscience now become important disciplines for marketing companies to change the way humans think and do. When we are surfing online, on the other side of the screen is a group of experts whose job is to keep us as  (31)  as possible. Exciting headlines and sensational contents are tactics they usually use to  (32)  our attention effectively. It is almost impossible for modern people to get away from the smartphone because we feel  (33)  when it is out of reach. The marketing company understands well how the brain is programmed and takes advantage of its reward system,  (34)  leads to feelings of happiness and satisfaction. After getting used to a specific type of app, we  (35)  it to get the pleasure we once had.

The widespread sale and use of illegal drugs poses a major challenge to governments throughout the world. A UN report estimated that the total value of the international illegal drug trade was annually $400 billion, larger than the value of international trade in iron, steel and motor vehicles. In the war on drugs, several countries, including Singapore, have adopted a zero tolerance law regarding drug trafficking and possession. Especially, Singapore is in a rather unique geographical position as an air, land, and sea hub for Southeast Asia. This fact makes it particularly attractive as a transit point for drug traffickers.

In April 2023, a Singaporean man convicted of trying to traffic around 2.2 pounds of cannabis was executed. A sentence lambasted by human rights groups and campaigners for its severity at a time when many other nations have adopted a more lenient approach towards drugs and capital punishment. While cannabis has been legalized in a growing number of nations worldwide, Singapore maintains some of the world’s harshest drug laws, and its government remains adamant that capital punishment works to deter drug traffickers and must remain in place to maintain public safety.

However, human rights groups point to the fact that many of those executed in Singapore are among the most impoverished and vulnerable of the population, including a large number of foreign nationals and migrant workers. In the case of drug trafficking convictions, it has been argued that those found guilty are usually the drug users. What this means is that minor players are executed while the major players, those who lead the drug trafficking operations, are able to escape punishment, and continue to command their illegal operations. Furthermore, human rights groups argue that despite the harsh laws, drug abuse has not abated, particularly among the poorest and least educated young people in Singapore.

Certainly, part of Singapore's approach to deal with the use of illegal drugs can be related to the government's intense concern over national security since independence from Britain. The political system that has developed in Singapore depends on the continued use of powers established to deal with communist threats in the Southeast Asian peninsula in the 1950s. A key instrument in wielding this power is the Internal Security Act (ISA) which was legislated in 1960 and modeled on the British government’s Preservation of Public Security Ordinance in 1955. Under the law, anyone caught trafficking, importing or exporting certain quantities of illegal drugs like methamphetamine, heroin, cocaine or cannabis products receives the mandatory death sentence. Furthermore, citizens can be arrested without warrant and detained without trial if they are “suspected of criminal activity” including the sale or use of illegal drugs in the country. Once the physical act of trafficking, shown by the fact of possession of the drugs, as well as the intent to deliver, carry or sell the drug are proved, the conviction would be confirmed. Singapore’s government claims these harsh laws as a few effective ways to keep drugs out in the country.

Around 9,500 years ago, ancient Sumerian accountants developed a method to keep a record of farmers’ harvests and livestock by using small baked clay pieces, each with a different shape denoting different commodities. Today, although we use banknotes and increasingly digital transactions, our modern methods of payment have their roots in these tokens. Over time, numerous items have represented value, from stones to animal skins. Gold emerged as a universal currency due to its durability and versatility. The first coins, manufactured around 2,700 years ago in Lydia (modern-day Turkey), didn’t bear much resemblance to today’s currency. They lacked a specified value, and the value of these coins was dictated by the metal within them. The creation of money facilitated the development of large-scale trade networks. The ease of transacting with money led to the establishment of the first foreign exchanges, like those in the ancient Greek city-state of Corinth. Alongside exchanging money and goods, traders dispersed religious beliefs, knowledge, and innovations, thereby creating bonds between distant cultures. This international trade resulted in complex economic organizations. In the 1600s, investors began to back traders and colonists voyaging to the New World, anticipating a share of the goods returned. This marked the dawn of a global economy where products and money crossed borders in search of profit. By the 1700s, the global economy had expanded to such a degree that dealing with massive quantities of coins became troublesome. Consequently, societies started adopting paper currency, which originally represented ownership of gold or silver coins. Bankers soon noticed that many people preferred using notes rather than redeeming them for gold. This observation led to the concept of fiat money, where the value of money is determined by the government and not tied to a physical commodity. The shift towards virtual money has seen a further departure from tangible representations of value. The birth of the first universal credit card in 1950 by Diners Club International was a significant step in this evolution. Today, cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin exist solely as digital constructs, not issued or controlled by any government. Parag Khanna, a financial policy expert, highlights this as the true future of money. This continuous evolution of money has not only simplified the trade of goods but also bridged connections globally, making money a universal language that affects everyone.

The concept of personalized medicine is rooted in understanding the thousands of genes that make us unique individuals. This innovative approach to healthcare relies on exploring the human genome—the complete set of an individual's genes—to predict disease susceptibility based on genetic risk factors and to observe cellular responses to disease. The ultimate goal is to tailor medical treatments according to the individual's unique genetic makeup. Personalized medicine can be traced back to the mid-19th century when the concept of inherited traits was first established. As scientific understanding evolved, by the early 20th century, researchers began to associate specific genes with the likelihood of developing certain diseases. This newfound knowledge prompted the question: could this genetic information be utilized to devise more effective, individualized drug prescriptions? While the concept of personalized medicine was gaining attention, it was far from being fully realized. Recognizing the significance of understanding the human genome, the United States initiated the Human Genome Project in 1990. The project aimed to map all the genes within the human body, and by its completion in 2003, roughly 24,000 genes had been identified. Today, scientific exploration continues to deepen our understanding of gene interactions and the potential of personalized medicine. Nowadays, patients are increasingly seeking genetic consultation to create personalized gene maps to gauge their predisposition to diseases. Physicians are utilizing this knowledge to anticipate health issues and to devise treatments or preventative strategies that are most likely to succeed for the individual patient. The advent of personalized medicine has sparked a range of reactions in the medical community. There are skeptics with valid concerns, such as the reliability of the results. However, the predominant view is that personalized medicine holds the promise to revolutionize healthcare. As research continues, it will become clearer whether this approach truly provides significant benefits.